Dryden's Heroic play

The tragic authors of the Restoration  period and their tragedies occupy a position in the whole less important, though distinctly curious. With all their faults, there can be no doubt that comedies like Love for Love , The Confederacy, and the Beaux-Stratagem mark in certain directions an advance upon all English comic work before them, except that of Shakespeare .For poetry is not necessary to comedy , and   is absolutely necessary to tragedy.

The tragedy of the times divide itself, with the usual overlapping, into two parts- the Heroic Drama and the Blank verse tragedy . In both periods and in both kinds the mighty craftsmanship of Dryden led the way and despite the traditional repute of Venice Preserved, it is impossible here to admit that any examples surpassed The Conquest of Granada in the first kind, and All for Love in the second.

The Rival Ladies, which is Dryden's first serious play, and which followed The Wild Gallant at not great interval, is neither wholly tragic nor wholly comic, neither wholly rhymed nor wholly blank verse and prose. But The Indian Emperor (1665), following an Indian Queen, in which he helped his brother-in-law , Sir Robert Howard, was his first distinct and original venture wholly in the new style.

The Maiden Queen(1667) is a blend of  a tragic, or at least serious, heroics and comic prose. But Tyrannic Love , or  The Royal Martyr (1669), a dramatization of the legend of St.Catherine, first exhibited the heroic style in perfection.The splendid rhetoric of the best passages,the rattling single stick play of the rhyming dialogue, and the really noble sentiment of much of it, almost excuse the enthusiasm of audiences for a style full of most glaring faults. This is still more the case with the two parts of The Conquest of Granada (1670), which brought the kind of of its highest perfection.

The State of Innocence, which is half  an opera and more than half a  Heroic play, shows an undiminished popularity of the style. And in Aurangzeb, still heroic. When he turned from rhyme to blank verse, he actually took a play of  Shakespeare's for something more than the canvas of his new attempt.  

John Dryden-poetry

The group of Dryden's poems on the Restoration-Astrea Redux, a poem on the coronation, and one to Clarendon- is of singular interest. All three are written in the couplet, the metre  that to strengthen, to perfect, and to install in public  favor  for something like a country and a half. He is not yet at his best in it, or at anything near his, best. In his next, and for many years only , important poem he relapsed into the quatrain. Annus MIrabilis (1666)  is a poem which might be taken as a text or series of texts to show the difference between the old poetry and new .


Then for the fifteen years and more , Dryden did nothing of importance in pure poetry , and his Drama -verse and other will be handled two chapters hense. He broke out again with the marvellous group of satires above referred to -Absalom and Achitophel (part 1 ,November 1682) and second part of-Absalom and Achitophel  (with important contributions from Dryden , though the whole is not his) a month later, with Religio Laici almost at the same moment. In this poem Dryden showed himself in a light which though not perhaps surprising to careful students on of his plays, could hardly have been anticipated by anyone who knew his earlier poems only.

Dryden has been strongly called "Phlegmatic" from the cool superiority  which he observes in dealing with the most exciting themes. He is in reality no more phlegmatic than Shakespeare  himself, though he is a lesser poet with a lesser range. The phlegm of the great passage on life in Aurangzeb,of the "Wandering Fires" in The Hind and the Panther , to mention no others,is a very curious humour.

The controversial verse of Religio Laici , with its tell yearning for an infallible director, is less popular than the great satiric portraits of the Absalom pieces , The Medal, and Macflecknoe, but it is not less good. Perhaps the very best of all --magnificent as are the "Zimri", the "Og" , the "Doeg" and the whole of   Macflecknoe - is the" Shimei" of the first Absalom.

For some ten years after the revolution Dryden was too much occupied with hackwork of various kinds -the chief being the Virgil -to produce much original , or even semi original , poetry ,but his genius happily inspired him, just before he died, to give the most striking proof ever given by any poet that age and ill health and the unkindness of circumstances had not affected his absolute pre-eminence over all his fellows. The so called Fables were chiefly made up of some remarkable paraphrases-Dryden himself, with more modesty, called them "translations" from Chaucer and Boccaccio.

For  some other reason, it has been fashion for  a century to call him prosaic. "The most prosaic of our great poets" ,' a classic of our prose" . But Dryden was not a prosaic poet, but he was  the poet of  a prosaic time.

John Dryden

John Dryden was born in 1631 at Aldwinkle All Saints in Northamptonshire, of a family which certainly came from North. He was educated at Westminster,and at Trinity collage ,Cambridge.We know extremely little of his beginnings in literature; but in 1663, having succeeded to a small property, he married Lady Elizabeth Howard,eldest daughter of the Earl of Berkshire. In 1670 he was made poet-Laureate and Historiographer- Royal in succession,to Davenant and Howell ,but for ten years more he wrote little plays. The ferments of the Popish  plot induced his great political satires. 

john Dryden

 Dryden did much poorly-paid work for the court, drudging translations and writing The Hind and the Panther (  the greatest poem ever written in the teeth of his subjects) , and when revolution came he was faithful to his cause, and lost everything but his small private fortune. He returned to play-writing, and after a time made inadequate but not inconsiderable  his gains by   translations of Virgil.

His last, and almost his best work contained in the volume of Fables, which was published (1699-1700). He had three sons, the youngest of whom succeeded to the to the baronetcy.  Dryden's change of faith, the questionable shape of a good deal of his dramatic writing.
His intellectual and his literary greatness have seldom been denied .He did not show his great powers very early , and indeed the amount of work that we have from him till after thirtieth year is extremely small.
 Dryden was greatest poet of his own day and style by such a distance that know second can be placed to him. He was the chief agent of in the shaping and the popularising of the new prose. And if one or two tragedies of others have been thought , and several comedies certainly are , better than any plays of his,yet no one did both so well, while he also exceeds all in the volume of his dramatic work and in the variety of its forms.

The Age of CHAUCER

1)       Chaucer’s best descriptions, of man, manners and place, are of the first rank in their beauty, impressiveness, and humour. Even when he follows the common examples of the time, as when giving details of conventional spring

 mornings and flowery gardens , he has a vivacity that makes his poetry unique.

THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND (1350-1450)

                     The period now under review is quite short. It includes the greater part of the reign of Edward III and the long French wars associated with his name: the accession of his grandson Richard II (1377); and the revolution of 1399,the deposition of Richard, and the foundation of the Lancastrian dynasty .From the literary point of view, of greater importance are the social and intellectual movements of the periods: the terrible plague called the Black Death, bringing poverty, unrest, and revolt among the peasant, and the growth of the spirit of inquiry, which was strongly critical of the ways of church, and found expression in the teaching of Wyclif and the Lollards, and in the stern denunciations of Langland.

LITERARY FEATURES OF THE AGE :

1   1. The standardizing of English.

French and English have amalgamated to form the standard English tongue, which attains to its first full expression in the works of Chaucer.

2. A curious 'MODERN' NOTE begins to be apparent at this period. There is a sharper spirit of criticism,  more searching interest in man’s affairs, and a less childlike faith in, and a less complacent acceptances of, the establish order. The vogue of romance, though it has by no means gone, is passing, and in Chaucer it is derided. The freshness of  the romantic ideal is being  superseded by the more acute spirit of the drama, which even at this early time is faintly foreshadowed.

3. Prose:

The era sees the foundation of an English prose style. Earlier specimens have been experimental or purely imitative; now, in the works of Mandeville and Malory, we have prose that is both original and individual. The English tongue is now ripe for a prose style. The language is settling to a standard; Latin and French are losing grip as popular prose mediums and the growing desire for an English Bible exercises steady pressure in favour of a standard English prose.  

 4. Scottish Literature:

For the first time in our literature, in the person of Barbour (1316 (?)-9 95), Scotland supplies a writer worthy of note. This is only the beginning; for the tradition is handed on the powerful group Who are mentioned in this age.
 

His life :

The date of his birth is uncertain, but it is now generally accepted as being 1340. He was born in

 London, entered the household of the wife of the Duke of Clarence (1357), and saw military 

service abroad, where he was captured. Next he seems to have entered the royal household, 

for he is frequently mentioned as the recipient of royal pensions and bounties. When Richard II 

succeeded to the crown, Chaucer was confirmed in his offices and pensions, and shortly afterwards. 

He was sent to Italy on one of his several diplomatic missions. He was first poet to be buried in what

 is now known as poets corner in west minister Abbey.

His poems :

The order of chaucer’s poem cannot be ascertained with certitude. But from internal evidence they

can as a rule be approximately dated.

It is now customary to divide the Chaucerian poems into three stages. THE ITALIAN, and THE 

FRENCH, and THE ENGLISH of which is the last is a development of the first two.

1) FRENCH STAGE :

The Romaunt of the Rose: 

             (The Romaunt) is a partial translation into Middle English of the French allegorical poem, le Roman de la Rose (le Roman). Originally believed to be the work of Chaucer, the Romaunt inspired controversy among 19th-century scholars when parts of the text were found to differ in style from Chaucer's other works. Also the text was found to contain three distinct fragments of translation. Together, the fragments—A, B, and C--provide a translation of approximately one-third of Le Roman.

There is little doubt that Chaucer did translate Le Roman de la Rose under the title The Romaunt of the Rose: in The Legend of Good Women, the narrator, Chaucer, states as much. The question is whether the surviving text is the same one that Chaucer wrote. The authorship question has been a topic of research and controversy. As such, scholarly discussion of the Romaunt has tended toward linguistic rather than literary analysis.

Scholars today generally agree that only fragment A is attributable to Chaucer, although fragment C closely resembles Chaucer's style in language and manner. Fragment C differs mainly in the way that rhymes are constructed. And where fragments A and C adhere to a London dialect of the 1370s, Fragment B contains forms characteristic of a northern dialect.

The Book of the Duchess:

                 The Book of the Duchess is the first of Chaucer's major poems. Scolars are uncertain about the date of composition. Most scolars ascribe the date of composition between 1369 and 1372. Chaucer probably wrote the poem to commemorate the death of Blanche of Lancaster, John of Gaunt's wife. Notes from antiquary John Stowe indicate that the poem was written at John of Gaunt's request.
The poem begins with a sleepless poet who lies in bed reading a book. The poet reads a story about Ceyx and Alcyone and wanders around in his thoughts. Suddenly the poet falls asleep and dreams a wonderful story. He dreams that he wakes up in a beautiful chamber by the sound of hunters and hunting dogs. The poet follows a small hunting dog into the forest and finds a knight dressed in black who mourns about losing a game of chess. The poet asks the knight some questions and realizes at the end of the poem that the knight was talking symbolically instead of literally: the black knight has lost his love and lady. The poet awakes and decides that this wonderful dream should be preserved in rhyme.

2) ITALIAN STAGE :

The Parliament of Fowls :

                               The Parliament of Fowls is also known as The "Parlement of Foules", "Parliament of Foules," "Parlement of Briddes," "Assembly of Fowls" or "Assemble of Foules". The poem has 699 lines and has the form of a dream vision of the narrator. The poem is one of the first references to the idea that St. Valentine's Day was a special day for lovers. As the printing press had yet to be invented when Chaucer wrote his works, The Parliament of Fowls has been passed down in fourteen manuscripts (not including manuscripts that are considered to be lost). Scholars generally agree that the poem has been composed in 1381-1382.
The plot is about the narrator who dreams that he passes through a beautiful landscape, through the dark temple of Venus to the bright sunlight. Dame Nature sees over a large flock of birds who are gathered to choose their mates. The birds have a parliamentary debate while three male eagles try to seduce a female bird. The debate is full of speeches and insults. At the end, none of the three eagles wins the female eagle. The dream ends welcoming the coming spring.

                     The letter has a fine opening and in the characterization of the birds, shows chaucer’s true comic spirit. Troilus and Criseyde is a long poem adapted from Boccaccio but its emphasis on character it is original, and indicative of the line of chaucer’s   development. This both poem chaucer’s best narrative work.

  The House of Fame  : 

                          (Hous of Fame in the original spelling) is a Middle English poem by Geoffrey Chaucer, probably written between 1379 and 1380, making it one of his earlier works. It was most likely written after The Book of the Duchess, but its chronological relation to Chaucer's other early poems is uncertain.

                       The House of Fame is over 2,000 lines long in three books and takes the form of a dream vision composed in octosyllabic couplets. Upon falling asleep the poet finds himself in a glass temple adorned with images of the famous and their deeds. With an eagle as a guide, he meditates on the nature of fame and the trustworthiness of recorded renown. This allows Chaucer to contemplate the role of the poet in reporting the lives of the famous and how much truth there is in what can be told.

                  The third or English group contains work of the greatest individual accomplishment. 

The  achievement of this period is the Canterbury tales, though one or two of the separate tales may 

 be of slightly earlier composition. For the general idea of the tales Chaucer may be indebted to 

Boccaccio, but in near every important feature the work is essentially English. The separate tales are 

linked with their individual prologues, and with dialogues and scarps of narrative.

                 There are two prose tales, Chaucer’s own Tale of melibee and The Parson’s Tale ; and nearly all the others are composed in a powerful and versatile species of the decasyllabic or heroic couplet.

HIS PROSE 

1)  The Tale of Melibee (also called The Tale of Melibeus) 

            The story concerns Melibee who is away one day when three enemies break into his house, beat 

  his wife Dame Prudence, and attack his daughter, leaving her for dead. The tale then proceeds as a long 

  debate mainly between Melibee and his wife on what actions to take and how to seek redress from

  his enemies. His wife, as her name suggests, counsels prudence and chides him for his rash opinions.

  The discussion uses many proverbs and quotes from learned authorities and the Bible as each make

  their points. Dame Prudence is a woman discussing the role of the wife within marriage in a similar 

  way to the Wife of Bath and the wife in The Shipman's Tale.

2) The Person ‘s Tale :

             The subject of the parson's "tale" (or rather, treatise) is penitence. It may thus be taken as containing             inferential criticism of the behaviour and character of humanity detectable in all the other pilgrims,              knight included. Chaucer himself claims to be swayed by the plea for penitence, since he follows the         Parson's Tale with a Retraction (the conceit which appears to have been the intended close entire cycle)         in which he personally asks forgiveness for any offences he may have caused and (perhaps) for having           deed  to write works of worldly vanitee at all (line 1085).            

The                 The parson divides penitence into three parts; contrition of the heart, confession of the mouth,        and satisfaction. The second part about confession is illustrated by referring to the Seven Deadly sins  offering remedies against them. The Seven Deadly Sins are pride, envy, wrath, sloth, greed,gluttony, and lust; they are "healed" by the virtues of humility, contentment, patience attitude, mercy, moderation, and chastity.  
        
        FEATURES OF HIS POETRY : 

1. The first thing is that strikes the eye is the unique position that Chaucer’s work occupies in the literature of the age. He is first, with no competitor for hundreds of years to challenges his position.
2. Among Chaucer’s literary virtues his acute faculty of observation is very important. He was man of the world, mixing freely with all type of mankind; and he used his opportunities to observe the little peculiarities of human nature.
3. Chaucer’s best descriptions, of man, manners and place, are of the first rank in their beauty, impressiveness, and humour. Even when he follows the common examples of the time, as when giving details of conventional spring mornings and flowery gardens , he has a vivacity that makes his poetry unique.
4.                                                        “ The bisy larke, messager of day,
   Salueth in her song the morwe gay,
   And firy phocebus riseth up so bright
   That all the orient laugheth with the lighte.”
                                                                                                                                           The knight’s Tale
5. The prevailing feature of chaucer’s humour is its Urbanity: the man of the worlds kindly tolerance of the weakness of his erring fellow mortals. He lays an emphasis on pathos, but it is not overlooked. In the poetry of chaucer’s the sentiment is human and unforced. We have excellent example of pathos in the tale of the ‘prioress’ and in ‘The Legend of good women’.
6.  Chaucer’s stories viewed strictly as stories, have most of the weakness of his generation : a fondness for long speeches, for pedantic digressions on such subjects as dreams and ethical problems, and for long explanation when non are necessary.
7.  His Metrical skill: The seven lined stanza a b a b b c c has become known as the Chaucerian or rhyme royal. He shows the skill that is as good as the very best apparent in the contemporary poems.
8. We many summarize chaucer’s achievement by saying that he is earliest of the great moderns. In comparison with the poets of his own time, and those of the succeeding century, the advance he makes is almost starting. All the chaucerian’s features help to create this modern atmosphere. He is indeed a genius ; he stands alone, and for nearly two hundred years none dare claim equality with him.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     IMPORTANT EVENTS OF THE AGE OF THE CHAUCER                                                                                                                                 

   EVENT	YEAR
   Edward III’s reign	1327-1377
   William Langland born	1332
   Beginning of the hundred years War with France	1338
   Chaucer born	1340
   Battle of Crecy	1346
   The Black Death (Plague)	1348-49
   Battle of Poictiers	1356
   Rechard II’s reign	1377-99
   Wyclif’s Bible	1380
   Wat Tyler’s Rebellion	1381
   Henry IV ascends the throne	1399
   Death of Langland	1400
   Death of Chaucer	1400

                                                                                             IMPORTANTS EVENTS OF THE POST-CHAUCERIAN PERIOD (1400-1557)